Steel Design

STEEL BEAM DESIGN Laterally Unrestrained Beam Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 1 Non-dimensional slenderness Beam behaviour analogous to yielding/buckling of columns. M Wyfy Material yielding (in-plane bending) MEd MEd Elastic member buckling Mcr Lcr 1. 0 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Non-dimensional slenderness Unrestrained Beam ? LT 2 Lateral torsional buckling Lateral torsional buckling Lateral torsional buckling is the member buckling mode associated with slender beams loaded about their major axis, without continuous lateral restraint.If continuous lateral restraint is provided to the beam, then lateral torsional buckling will be prevented and failure will occur in another mode, generally in-plane bending (and/or shear). Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 3 Eurocode 3 Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that both crosssectional and member bending resistance must be verified: MEd ? Mc ,Rd Cross-section check (In-plane bending) MEd ? Mb,Rd Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unr estrained Beam Member buckling check 4 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 5 Laterally Unrestrained BeamThe design of beam in this Lecture 3 is considering beams in which either no lateral restraint or only intermittent lateral restraint is provided to the compression flange Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 6 Lateral Torsional Buckling Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 7 Lateral Torsional Buckling Figure 3-1 shows an unrestrained beam subjected to load increment. The compression flange unrestrained and beam is not stiff enough. There is a tendency for the beam to deform sideways and twist about the longitudinal axis. The failure mode which may occur to the beam is called lateral torsional buckling.Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 8 ?Involves both deflection and twisting rotation ?Out-of plane buckling. Bending Resistance M c, Rd ? M pl ? W pl f y ?M0 Due to the effect of LTB, the bending resistance of cross section become less. Failure may occurs earlier then expected Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 9 Examples of Laterally Unrestrained Beam Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 10 Restrained Beam Comparsion Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 11 Intermittent Lateral Restrained Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 12Torsional restraint Usually both flanges are held in their relative positions by external members during bending. May be provided by load bearing stiffeners or provision of adequate end connection details. See Figure 3-4. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 13 Beam without torsional restraint Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 14 Can be discounted when: †¢ Minor axis bending †¢ CHS, SHS, circular or square bar †¢ Fully laterally restrained beams †¢ ? LT< 0. 2 (or 0. 4 in some cases) – Unrestrained length Cross-sectional shape End restrained condition The moment along the beam Loading – tension or compression Unrestrained Beam 16Dr. A Azi z Saim 2010 EC3 Lateral torsional buckling resistance Checks should be carried out on all unrestrained segments of beams (between the points where lateral restraint exists). Lateral restraint Lateral restraint Lcr = 1. 0 L Lateral restraint Beam on plan Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 17 Three methods to check LTB in EC3: †¢ The primary method adopts the lateral torsional buckling curves given by equations 6. 56 and 6. 57, and is set out in clause 6. 3. 2. 2 (general case) and clause 6. 3. 2. 3 (for rolled sections and equivalent welded sections). The second is a simplified assessment method for beams with restraints in buildings, and is set out in clause 6. 3. 2. 4. †¢ The third is a general method for lateral and lateral torsional buckling of structural components, given in clause 6. 3. 4. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 18 Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that both cross-sectional and member bending resistance must be verified: MEd ? Mc ,Rd Cros s-section check (In-plane bending) MEd ? Mb,Rd Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam Member buckling check 19 Lateral-torsional buckling Eurocode 3 design approach for lateral torsional buckling is analogous to the olumn buckling treatment. The design buckling resistance Mb,Rd of a laterally unrestrained beam (or segment of beam) should be taken as: Mb,Rd ? ?LT Wy fy ? M1 Reduction factor for LTB Lateral torsional buckling resistance: Mb,Rd = ?LT Wy fy ? M1 Equation (6. 55) Wy will be Wpl,y or Wel,y ?LT Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 is the reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling Unrestrained Beam 21 Buckling curves – general case (Cl 6. 3. 2. 2) Lateral torsional buckling curves for the general case are given below : (as in Eq (6. 56)) ?LT ? 1 2 ? LT ? ?LT ? ?2 LT but ? LT ? 1. 0 ?LT ? 0. 5 [ 1 ? ?LT (? LT ? 0. ) ? ?2 ] LT Plateau length Imperfection factor from Table 6. 3 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 22 Imperfection factor ? LT Imperfection factors ? LT for 4 buckling curves: (refer Table 6. 3) Buckling curve Imperfection factor ? LT a 0. 21 b 0. 34 c 0. 49 d 0. 76 Buckling curve selection For the general case, refer to Table 6. 4: Cross-section Rolled I-sections Welded Isections Limits h/b ? 2 h/b > 2 h/b ? 2 h/b > 2 – Buckling curve a b c d d Other crosssections Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 24 LTB curves 4 buckling curves for LTB (a, b, c and d) 1. 2 Reduction factor ? LT . 0 0. 8 0. 6 0. 4 0. 2 0. 0 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d 2 2. 5 0. 2 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Non-dimensional slenderness Unrestrained Beam ?LT 25 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 26 lateral torsional buckling slenderness ? LT Mcr ? Wy f y Mcr Elastic critical buckling moment Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 27 Non-dimensional slenderness †¢ Calculate lateral torsional buckling slenderness: ? LT ? Wy f y Mcr †¢ Buckling curves as for compression (except curve a0) †¢ Wy depends on section classification †¢ Mcr is the elastic critical LTB moment Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3Unrestrained Beam 28 BS EN 1993-1-1 does not give a method for determining the elastic critical moment for lateraltorsional buckling Mcr !!!!!!!! May use ‘LTBeam’ software (can be downloaded from CTICM website) Or may use method presented by L. Gardner †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 29 Mcr under uniform moment For typical end conditions, and under uniform moment the elastic critical lateral torsional buckling moment Mcr is: Mcr ,0 G IT Iw Iz Lcr ? EIz ? 2 Lcr 2 ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? ? EIz ? ? Iz 2 0. 5 is the shear modulus is the torsion constant is the warping constant is the inor axis second moment of area is the buckling length of the beam Unrestrained Beam 30 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Mcr under non-uniform moment Numerical solutions have been calculated for a number of other loading conditions. For uniform doubly-symmetric cross-sections, loaded through the shear centre at the level of the centroidal axis, and with the standard conditions of restraint described, Mcr may be calculated by: ? EIz Mcr ? C1 2 Lcr 2 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? ? EIz ? ? Iz 2 0. 5 31 C1 factor – end momentsFor end moment loading C1 may be approximated by the equation below, though other approximations also exist. C1= 1. 88 – 1. 40y + 0. 52y2 but C1 ? 2. 70 where y is the ratio of the end moments (defined in the following table). Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 32 C1 factor – transverse loading Loading and support conditions Bending moment diagram Value of C1 1. 132 1. 285 1. 365 1. 565 1. 046 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 33 Design procedure for LTB Design procedure for LTB: 1. Determine BMD and SFD from design loads 2. Select section and determine geometry 3. Classify cross-section (Class 1, 2, 3 or 4) 4.Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr – depends on bounda ry conditions and load level 5. Calculate Mcr and Wyfy Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 34 Design procedure for LTB 6. Non-dimensional slenderness ? LT ? Wy fy Mcr 7. Determine imperfection factor ? LT 8. Calculate buckling reduction factor ? LT 9. Design buckling resistance 10. Check Mb,Rd ? ?LT Wy fy ? M1 MEd ? 1. 0 Mb,Rd for each unrestrained portion Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 35 LTB Example General arrangement Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 36 LTB Example Design loading is as follows: 425. 1 kN A B C 319. 6 kN D 2. 5 m 3. 2 m 5. 1 mLoading Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 37 LTB Example 267. 1 kN A B D 52. 5 kN SF C 477. 6 kN Shear force diagram B A C D BM 1194 kNm 1362 kNm Bending moment diagram Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 38 LTB Example For the purposes of this example, lateral torsional buckling curves for the general case will be utilised. Lateral torsional buckling checks to be carried out on segments BC and CD. By inspection, segment AB is not critical. Try 762? 267? 173 UB in grade S 275 steel. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 39 LTB Example b z tw h d y y r z tf h = 762. 2 mm b = 266. 7 mm tw = 14. 3 mm tf = 21. 6 mm r = 16. mm A = 22000 mm2 Wy,pl = 6198? 103 mm3 Iz = 68. 50? 106 mm4 It = 2670? 103 mm4 Iw = 9390? 109 mm6 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 40 LTB Example For a nominal material thickness (tf = 21. 6 mm and tw = 14. 3 mm) of between 16 mm and 40 mm the nominal values of yield strength fy for grade S 275 steel (to EN 10025-2) is 265 N/mm2. From clause 3. 2. 6: N/mm2. E = 210000 N/mm2 and G ? 81000 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 41 LTB Example Cross-section classification (clause 5. 5. 2): e ? 235 / fy ? 235 / 265 ? 0. 94 Outstand flanges (Table 5. 2, sheet 2) cf = (b – tw – 2r) / 2 = 109. 7 mm cf / tf = 109. 7 / 21. 6 = 5. 8 Limit for Class 1 flange = 9e = 8. 48 > 5. 08 ? Flange is Class 1 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Bea m 42 LTB Example Web – internal part in bending (Table 5. 2, sheet 1) cw = h – 2tf – 2r = 686. 0 mm cw / tw= 686. 0 / 14. 3 = 48. 0 Limit for Class 1 web = 72 e = 67. 8 > 48. 0 ? Web is Class 1 Overall cross-section classification is therefore Class 1. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 43 LTB Example Bending resistance of cross-section (clause 6. 2. 5): Mc ,y,Rd ? Wpl,y fy ? M0 for Class 1 and 2 sec tions 6198 ? 103 ? 265 ? ? 1642 ? 106 Nmm 1. 0 ? 1642 kNm ? 1362 kNm ? Cross-section resistance in bending is OK.Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 44 LTB Example Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6. 3. 2. 2) – Segment BC: MEd ? 1362 kNm Mb ,Rd ? ? LT Wy fy ? M1 where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sections Determine Mcr for segment BC (Lcr = 3200 mm) Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 ? EIz Mcr ? C1 2 Lcr 2 ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? ? EIz ? ? Iz Unrestrained Beam 2 0. 5 45 LTB Example For end moment loading C1 may be approximated from: C1 = 1. 88 â⠂¬â€œ 1. 40y + 0. 52y2 but C1 ? 2. 70 1194 y is the ratio of the end moments ? ? 0. 88 1362 ? C1 ? 1. 05 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 Mcr ? 1. 05 ? 32002 ? 9390 ? 109 32002 ? 81000 ? 2670 ? 103 ? ? ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? ? 0. 5 = 5699Ãâ€"106 Nmm = 5699 kNm Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 46 LTB Example Non-dimensional lateral torsional slenderness for segment BC: ? LT ? Wy fy Mcr 6198 ? 103 ? 265 ? ? 0. 54 6 5699 ? 10 Select buckling curve and imperfection factor ? LT: From Table 6. 4: h/b = 762. 2/266. 7 = 2. 85 For a rolled I-section with h/b > 2, use buckling curve b Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 47 LTB Example From Table 6. 3 of EN 1993-1-1: For buckling curve b, ? LT = 0. 34 Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, ? LT – Segment BC: ?LT ? 1 ? LT ? ? 2 LT LT but ? LT ? 1. 0 where ? LT ? 0. 5 [ 1 ? ?LT (? LT ? 0. 2) ? ?2 ] LT Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 48 LTB Example ?LT = 0. 5[1+0. 34(0. 54-0. 2) + 0. 542] = 0. 70 ? ? LT ? 1 0. 70 ? 0. 70 ? 0. 54 2 2 ? 0. 87 Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd – Segment BC : Mb,Rd ? ? LT Wy fy ? M1 265 ? 0. 87 ? 6198 ? 10 ? 1 . 0 3 ? 1425 ? 106 Nmm ? 1425 kNm Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 49 LTB Example MEd 1362 ? ? 0. 96 ? 1. 0 ? Segment BC is OK Mb,Rd 1425 Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6. 3. 2. 2) – Segment CD: MEd ? 1362 kNm Mb ,Rd ? ? LT Wy fy ? M1 where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sectionsDetermine Mcr for segment CD (Lcr = 5100 mm) Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 50 LTB Example ? EIz Mcr ? C1 2 Lcr 2 ? Iw Lcr GIT ? ? ? 2 ? Iz ? EIz ? ? 2 0. 5 Determine y from Table: 0 y is the ratio of the end moments ? ?0 1362 ? C1 ? 1. 88 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 Mcr ? 1. 88 51002 ? 9390 ? 109 51002 ? 81000 ? 2670 ? 103 ? ? ? ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? 2 ? 210000 ? 68. 5 ? 106 ? ? 0. 5 = 4311? 106 Nmm = 4311 kNm Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 51 LTB Example Non-dimensional lateral torsio nal slenderness for segment CD: ? LT ? Wy fy Mcr 6198 ? 103 ? 265 ? ? 0. 62 6 4311? 10 The buckling curve and imperfection factor ?LT are as for segment BC. Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 52 LTB Example Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, ? LT – Segment CD: ?LT ? 1 ? LT ? ? 2 LT 2 LT but ? LT ? 1. 0 where ? LT ? 0. 5 [ 1 ? ?LT (? LT ? 0. 2) ? ?2 ] LT = 0. 5[1+0. 34(0. 62-0. 2) + 0. 622] = 0. 76 ? ? LT Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 ? 1 0. 76 ? 0. 76 ? 0. 62 2 Unrestrained Beam 2 ? 0. 83 53 LTB Example Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd – Segment CD : Mb,Rd ? ?LT Wy fy ? M1 265 ? 0. 83 ? 6198 ? 10 ? 1. 0 3 ? 1360 ? 106 Nmm ? 1360 kNm MEd 1362 ? ? 1. 00 Mb,Rd 1360 Segment CD is critical and marginally fails LTB check.Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 54 Blank Page Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 55 Simplified assessment of ? LT For hot-rolled doubly symmetric I and H sections without destabilising loads,? may be conservatively simplified to: LT ? LT ? 1 0. 9 ? z ? C1 ?z 1 0. 9 ? 1 C1 E ? z ? L / iz ; ? 1 ? ? fy As a further simplification, C1 may also be conservatively taken = 1. 0. Simplified assessment of ? LT Substituting in numerical values for simplified expressions result. ? 1 , the following S235 ? LT ? 1 L / iz C1 104 S275 ? LT ? 1 L / iz C1 96 S355 ? LT ? 1 L / iz C1 85 C1 may be conservatively taken = 1. , though the level of conservatism increases the more the actual bending moment diagram differs from uniform moment. Simplified method (Cl. 6. 3. 2. 4) Simplified method for beams with restraints in buildings (Clause 6. 3. 2. 4) This method treats the compression flange of the beam and part of the web as a strut: b b Compression h Tension Compression flange + 1/3 of the compressed area of web Strut Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Beam Unrestrained Beam 58 General method (Cl. 6. 3. 4) General method for lateral and lateral torsional buckling of structural components †¢ May be applied to single members, plane frames etc. Requires determination of plastic and elastic (buckling) resistance of structure, which subsequently defines global slenderness †¢ Generally requires FE Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 59 Blank Page Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 60 Important Notes: (End Connections) When full torsional restraint exist: -both the compression and tension flanges are fully restrained against rotation on plan -both flanges are partially restrained against rotation on plan – both flanges are free to rotate on plan Unrestrained Beam 61 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Connection DetailDr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 62 Important Notes: (End Connections) Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 63 Important Notes: (End Connections) When both flanges are free to rotate on plan and the compression flange is unrestrained: i. torsional restraint is provided solely by connection of the tension flange to the supports, ii. torsional re straint is provided solely by dead bearing of the tension flange on support. Unrestrained Beam 64 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 65 Dr. A Aziz Saim 2010 EC3 Unrestrained Beam 66

Trade and Finance Eco372

International Trade and Finance Speech ECO/ 372 March 21, 2013 Good evening everyone! It is a pleasure to be here. This evening I will first briefly review the International trade and Financial state of our economy†¦.. What happens when there is a surplus of imports brought into the U. S Domestic producers competing with imports suffer from lower prices and fewer sales. They have less revenue and resource owners doing the production have less income. However, Domestic consumers enjoy lower prices! Whenever there is a surplus of products, regardless of origin, the price drops.Even to the point of selling at a loss, the holder has already paid the invoice and taxes, but still has to pay storage, the longer it holds the product the more money it costs, selling at a loss moves the product out of storage and clears the store front for another product. Take the case of car sales, do you really think that cutting $10,000 of the price of a $40K car makes sense if you can sell it for $40 K. * What are the effects of international trade to GDP, domestic markets and university student’s. International Trade to GDPIn order to understand international trade it is important to recognize what the effects of international trade have on the GDP, domestic markets and university students. International trade is essentially when two or more countries exchange goods and services. Many countries export their goods and services to other countries and in turn may also import goods and services from other countries into their own. There have been exceptional achievements with technology, which have made it much easier to trade on an international level.The communication, as a result of these technology advancements, has improved exponentially and it has truly simplified this process. With that being said it can be confirmed that international trade has a profound effect on the GDP, domestic markets and even university students like me. There are many countries that are rich in technology, like China and Japan, and others that have bountiful natural resources, like Iraq, that have a weighty impact on us specifically. The U. S. s one of the largest contributors to international trade and in fact our GDP is overwhelmingly impacted because we are huge import consumers. We rely heavily on products from other countries and import much more than what we export. This not only impact our GDP, thus lowering it since we are importing more than exporting, and also has an impact on our domestic markets because we. How do government choices in regards to tariffs and quotas affect international relations and trades?The government certainly makes many choices particularly when it comes to economics. The big question is how do government choices in regards to tariffs and quotas affect international relations and trade? First and foremost it is important to understand that tariffs and quotas are in place to encourage the government to make choices on how much quantity t hey will agree to have imported and exported and additionally the amount of taxes that will be collected in order to avoid discarding of those goods or services.Foreign investors are encourages to play a role in international trade by having exchange rates in place. There are also government policies in place that aid to avert certain goods and services from entering our country. In essence the main objective of the government and the choices that they make regarding tariffs and quotas is to do what is best for our economy to keep it stable and lucrative. What are foreign exchange rates? How are they determined? In order to understand foreign exchange rates we must ask the question of what are they and how are they determined?Because economic growth within a country is important, the government makes certain that fiscal and monetary policies are in place to ensure that this growth continues. Because there are goods and services which are traded between different countries around the world, there are foreign exchange rate payments that are required to be paid for those exchanges. This foreign exchange rate will differ from country to country. Why doesn’t the US simply restrict all goods coming in from China?Why can’t the US just minimize the amount of imports coming in from all other countries? Naturally there are many people that have asked the question of why the U. S. does not simply restrict all goods coming in from China, as an example? Why can’t the U. S. just minimize the amount of imports coming in from all other countries as well? It is difficult to restrict imports from other countries particularly in the U. S where there is a large group of consumers who are demanding goods and services from other countries.In order to satisfy the demands of people who want these goods or services from other countries the government allows for this easy trading and does earn revenue from duties and taxes on these imports. This helps to boost our own countries economy. References Colander, D. C. (2010). Macroeconomics. (8th ed. ). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. United States Department of Labor. (n. d. ). Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from http://www. bls. gov/eag/eag. us. htm. Trading Economics. (2012). United States Consumer Confidence.Retrieved from http://www. tradingeconomics. com/united-states/consumer-confidence. CBS NEWS. (n. d. ). US Consumer Spending Up, but Income Lags. Retrieved from http://www. cbsnews. com/8301-500395_162-57406993/us-consumer-spending-up-but-income-lags/. Appelbaum, B. (March 2012). The New York Times: As Fed Officials Prepare to Meet, They Await Clearer Economic Signals. Retrieved from http://www. nytimes. com/2012/03/12/business/as-fed-meeting-nears-it-awaits-clearer-economic-signals. html? ref=interestrates.

Single Parenthood: Literature Review

Single Parenthood: Literature Review2 This paper will look at the different research that has already been conducted on single parenthood. Possible research topics could be how single-parent families differ in their structure or financially, in contrast to households with two parents. Articles may also discuss the impact of single parent households on children, in terms of psychological impact, academic results, social and financial standings using statistics found in their research. By looking at articles done through American and Canadian research, it can be determined what research is missing, what the articles lack and possible suggestions to improve the substance of the materials listed. Economic Viewpoint In each article , different points were made about the financial hardships that children from single-parent households may experience and how it was much more likely they would experience them in comparison to children raised in a household with two parents. Lisa Calderwood, from London University’s Institute of Education, says, â€Å"Living apart from natural fathers can be associated with poverty and negative outcomes for children. †(Calderwood, 2010). Though not all single-parents are mothers, but Tim Casey, a senior staff attorney at Legal Momentum,( the U. S. ’ oldest organization advocating on behalf of the legal rights of women and girls. )â€Å"Employment isn’t keeping U. S. ingle parents — more than 80 percent of whom are single mothers — out of poverty. † (Casey, 2012). Here it states that not only are the majority of single parents single mothers, but that the income provided to these mothers is generally still not enough to keep them above the poverty line even though, â€Å"single mothers in the U. S. are employed more hours and yet have much higher poverty rates than their peers in other high-income countries. †(Casey, 2012). Single Parenthood: Literature Review 3 Paul Amato, a Professor of Sociology and Demography at The Pennsylvania State University, makes a good point saying due to lack of funds, â€Å"It is difficult for poor single parents to afford the books, home computers, and private lessons that make it easier for their children to succeed in school. †(Amato, 2005). This is a direct linkage with the academic success of children from single-parent families, which will be discussed later in the essay. Amato makes several good points, also saying, â€Å"they cannot afford clothes, shoes, cell phones, and other consumer goods that give their children status among their peers. (2005) Again this is in direct correlation with self-esteem issues that are more common in children raised by single parents. â€Å"Consistent with these observations, many studies have shown that economic resources explain some of the differences in well-being between children with single parents and those with continuously married parents. †(Amato, 2005). Amato makes the observation that many differences between children raised in single-parent households versus children raised with both parents can be explained by the financial difference brought on by a single income. An article stating that â€Å"Children raised by single mothers are twice as likely to misbehave as those born into traditional two-parent families† , (Paton, 2010), also says that â€Å"studies have found children raised by lone mothers are likely to have less economic security†(Calderwood, 2010)which the article implies influences the behaviour of the child raised in said type of household here: â€Å"parental qualifications and household income had a major effect on children’s behaviour at a young age, which could have â€Å"damaging long-term consequences. After looking at the findings from the different sources, it can be said that it is a fact that single-parent households are worse off financially than households with both parents. This is not only for the parents taking care of their children, but for the academic and social development of the children as stated by Amato (2005). Single Parenthood: Literature Review4 Academic Viewpoint Academically, the studies provide information which states that children from single-parent families do worse academically than those raised by both parents. They are twice as likely to drop out of high school, 2. 5 times as likely to become teen mothers, and 1. 4 times as likely to be idle. † (McLanahan , 2001). Here, Sara McLanahan states that studies have shown that children raised by single parents are more likely to drop out of high school, more likely to become teen parents and more likely to be out of school and without a job. As mentioned earlier by Paul Amato (2005), children raised by single parents cannot afford many things that could greatly benefit them in school such as â€Å"books, home computers, and private lessons. † (Amato, 2005). Paul Amato also states â€Å"In a meta-analysis of sixty-three studies of non-resident fathers and their children, Joan Gilbreth and I found that children had higher academic achievement when non-resident fathers were closely involved in their lives. † (Gilbreth & Amato, 2005). In her article, Sara McLanahan says that family disruption is not the same in all families and risk of failure in school varies among different American nationalities: â€Å"Family disruption increases the risk of school failure by 24 percentage points among Hispanics, 17 percentage points among whites, and 13 percentage points among blacks. (McLanahan, 2001). This is a pattern that is also consistent when it comes to dropping out. â€Å"Behavioural problems were less likely among children living in families with higher levels of parental qualifications. † (Calderwood, 2010) Here, Lisa Calderwood discusses behavioural problems among children raised in single-parent families, especially when it c omes to academics and found that these types of issues were more frequent in children raised by a lone parent. Single Parenthood: Literature Review5 In a chart from the National Study of Adolescent Health (1995), statistics can still show how there is a visible difference in the patterns of children raised by a lone parent, versus children raised by two. Nineteen percent of children raised by two parents had repeated a grade, compared to 30 percent of those raised by a single parent had repeated a grade, (1995). The chart shows this, as well as other categories such as, violence, delinquency, suspended, attended therapy, had smoked in the past month, attempted suicide and had thoughts of suicide. In each of the categories, the percentage of children who had done these things from a single parent household, was consistently higher than the percentages of those raised by both parents. (National Study of Adolescent Health , 1995). Emotional Nina Parry-Langdon , the author of a report done by the Department for Health and The Scottish Government, finds that â€Å"Children from broken homes are almost five times more likely to develop emotional problems than those living with both parents. †(Parry-Langdon, 2008). She specifies further to say that, â€Å"Children and young people in households of ‘reconstituted' families, particularly where there were step-children, were more likely to develop conduct disorder as were those in families which had two parents at Time 1 and one parent at Time 2. † (2008). It is important to realize that not all children that are raised by single parents, have never been raised by two parents. Here Nina points out that distress in children raised in blended families, is similar to that of children who have been through a parent’s divorce. After interviewing 5,364 children aged between five and 16 in 2004 and again last year, the researchers found that 3 per cent had developed problems over that time. †(Parry-Langdon, 2008). Again, this article makes a point to mention how quickly being Single Parenthood: Literature Review6 raised in a single-parent family can take its toll, in this case, in as little as three years’ time before con duction their second round of interviewing. From Paul Amato’s article, he states that â€Å"Interviews with children reveal that losing contact with fathers is one of the most painful outcomes of divorce. † (Amato, 2005). This shows that children are obviously impacted by the loss of contact, which can be compared to grief. Also in his article, Amato says that children from single-parent households have more exposure to stress, through many circumstances such as dealing with the financial burden, the inter-parental conflicts and in many cases having to move homes after the separation of parents. (2005) Tying in directly with stress Amato reveals, â€Å"[a study] based on a large sample of twins, found that growing up in a single-parent family predicted depression in adulthood even with genetic resemblance controlled statistically. †(Amato, 2005). This can partly be credited due to the high exposure to stress, stated above. He concludes by saying, â€Å"evidence strongly suggests that growing up without two biological parents in the home increases children's risk of a variety of cognitive, emotional, and social problems. † (Amato, 2005). In conclusion, after viewing these articles, there is much evidence to support the thesis that children from single parent households suffer in comparison to households in which both parents reside with their children. Further topics that should be considered are geographical patterns, as it seemed most of the research was focused at the United States. Another suggestion for the articles would be to gather more personal information from children of single-parent households, rather than cold statistics. The statistics make it easy to dismiss the reason behind the negative results, as opposed to hearing from children who are being raised by single parents to hear how they feel and why they feel they are suffering in certain aspects. Single Parenthood: Literature Review8 The articles did a good job at looking at the different categories including, financial, academic, and emotional issues that stem from single parenting. Out of the articles, Paul Amato (2005) and Sara McLanahan ( 2001). Research available from reputable sources on the topic of single parenthood is limited and its importance as an issue in North American society is diminished as ‘normal’, despite its serious impact shown in said articles. Work Cited Kaufmann, G. (2012, 12). This Week in Poverty: U. S. Single Mothers- ‘The Worst Off'. Moyers ; Company. Retrieved 04, 2013, from http://billmoyers. com/2012/12/24/this-week-in-poverty-us-single-mothers-%E2%80%94-%E2%80%98the-worst-off%E2%80%99/ Amato, P. (2005, 11). The Impact of Family Formation Change on the Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Well-Being of the Next Generation. The Future of Children. Retrieved 04, 2013, from http://futureofchildren. org/publications/journals/article/index. xml? journalid=37 McLanahan, S. (2001, 12). The Consequences of Single Motherhood. The American Prospect. Retrieved 04, 2013, from http://prospect. org/article/consequences-single-motherhoodleid=107 §ionid=690 Paton, G. (2010, 04). Children in Single-Parent Families ‘Worst Behaved'. The Telegraph. Retrieved 10, 2013, from

Total Quality Management (Case Study) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Total Quality Management (Case Study) - Essay Example Slight Sports, a sports equipment and hosiery manufacturing firm that has been operational for the last 40 years is one of the top organizations in the area of sports. The firm which started its operations from a single room became one of the top exporter of the sports equipment and accessories of the country. The major products included were footballs, basketballs, volley balls, tennis balls, sports hosieries and all the related equipment to these sports. Initially, Slight Sports catered to the local market for almost five years. The owner of the company, Mr. (XYZ) however, realized the potential of the foreign market and started looking for partners on foreign soils. With his untiring efforts, he found partners in different countries of the world and was able to create strong relationships with them. This was the start of the successful journey that Slight Sports enjoyed for almost thirty odd years. A major characteristic of Slight Sports products was that they were all handmade wh ich ultimately increased the value of their products worldwide. The visionary thinking and leadership characteristics of (XYZ) were instrumental in making Slight Sports earn its success. In the starting years of 2000, XYZ died due to heart disease. His death left a big hole in Slight Sports. The reins of the company were then transferred to his wife who started to look for new partners to modernize the firm in technological terms. The poor management skills and inexperience of Ms. XYZ proved extremely damaging for the firm. Kite Inc. who had been a major collaborator of Slight Sports in different countries ended their contract with Slight Sports sighting the declining quality of products and elimination of unique characteristics that were once forte of Slight Sports (Goldman, 100). The poor order management also played its part in ending of the contract. This was one of the major contract endings in the list which contained few other contract endings as well. Just in a couple of years Slight Sports had to cut back from all the major foreign deals and limited their operations to the local market. It is imperative to note that leadership is a key aspect in deciding a f irm’s success. The strategy, order management, client handling, etc, are important parts of any business, but there is no denying that they all come under the umbrella of leadership (Karni, 59). A firm with strong leader and few resources can attain the unattainable but a firm with huge resources and a weak leader cannot even attain the attainable. Findings, Recommendations & Conclusion The new owner did not realize the actual potential of slight sports. Her inexperience decided the firm’s downfall. She looked for new customers not realizing the company was not in the position to fulfill orders exceeding its capacity. She also cut down the unique characteristic Slight Sports had of â€Å"handmade† products by installing new machines. The installation of machines which should have been a good step proved damaging for them as it eliminated their point of major strength (Hitt, Ireland and Hoskisson, 75). The new owner needs to focus on constant quality management t echniques such as implying six sigma concepts in the business after the business gets stable. This is important because for quality to remain consistent, it needs to be maintained on a constant note by strong supervision of policies and procedures. Six sigma concepts may take time to embed in the firm's policies but nevertheless it should be implied as soon as

Hospitality Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Hospitality - Article Example ies became of incredible importance in the businesses, consequently Human Resource organization requirements to be cautiously well thought-out and implemented (Xiao 5). It ought to be able to overcome the effects of the varying earth of work, which advocates that individuals working in the Human Resources Department be alert of the effects of globalization, expertise changes, workforce variety, employment shortages, varying skill necessities, and employee participation. There has been extensive evidence done to determine the major cause that influences customers to return in hotels (Emir & Kozak). Many hotel businesses are undertaking extensive research to determine what may impress the customers and influence them to come back. Many five star hotels have concentrated on facilities they offer and the services they give their customers. The hotels mainly concentrated on reception services and house keeping ensuring their customers received quality services for them to return. Staff education is an important part as well as the major utility of Human Resource supervision and improvement; it is a fundamental path of encouraging staff and rising output in the industry. Through the improvement of the technologies and the entire business surroundings, workers are asked to be extra trained and qualified (Xiao

Chromatographic and Hyphenated Methods Research Paper

Chromatographic and Hyphenated Methods - Research Paper Example Thermometers should be available to take the correct reading during the heating process. One can easily forget to transfer the reagents to 5 volumetric standard flasks. This will limit the dilution of the reagents with the correct amount of acetone (Holler, et al., 2006). Following the right procedure and collecting all the requirements before the experiment will be helpful. During the experiment, the following components must be evaluated in the experiment. The quantity of esomeprazole in the product, which is the drug is one of the components to be determined. It is also significant to determine the stability of the drug in the environment. The process of preparing the drug should also be examined to ascertain its validity to the process (Holler, et al., 2006). During microanalysis, it is important to take a keen interest in the following; the content of esomeprazole in the drug, functionality of the drug and the effects of the drug patients. It is also important to examine the suitability of the drug to its function. The following should also be looked into Nexpro, torrent, Raciper, Ranbaxy, Bezos, Glenmark. There are different methods for separating ingredients. One of the processes is base-acid extraction. This is a desirable method for separating valuable chemicals from the unwanted gunk. The principle behind this theory is that chemicals alkaloids in general, exist in two forms. Water-soluble component together with an acid and an oil.

Professional Capstone Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Professional Capstone Project - Essay Example In particular, the paper analyzes the problem or issue identified in the articles, strengths and weakness of the articles and proposed recommendations/solutions. Lastly, the paper gives a rationale to support the choice of the literature and its significance to the project. The articles propose pain prevention theories other than use of therapies. The first search strategy applied in the study is the use of well-built clinical questions. In this context, well-built research questions are those deduced from the research topic so that they respond to key issues that form the topic. 1. Ferrel, B., Levy, M. H., & Paice, J. (2008). Managing pain from advanced cancer in the palliative care setting. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing, 12 (4), 575-81. The author proposes a gate control theory of pain among cancer patients in palliative care. In particular, the article recommends integration of physical, physiological, social, and spiritual therapies for the well-being of patients. This app roach is of key interest to patients and caregivers/nurses. ... 2. Kumar, S. P. (2011). Reporting characteristics of cancer pain: A systematic review and quantitative analysis of research publications in palliative care journals. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 17 (1), 57-66. This article identifies cancer as a â€Å"global health burden† and has reviewed existing scientific literature on palliative to establish whether there exists â€Å"adequate scientific research base on cancer pain† (Kumar, 2011, p. 57). The article proposes that adequate scientific research would be instrumental in pain management among cancer patients. In particular, effective research practices would enable researchers to identify chief causes of pain among cancer patients. Moreover, adequate research will make recommendations concerning the problem. The article uses sociological theories of self-awareness to solve cancer pain among patients. The article complies with up-to-date research on pain management among cancer patients, and hence is significant i n the study. 3. Fayers, P. M., Hjermstad, M. J., Klepstad, P., Loge, J. H., Caraceni, A., Hanks, G. W., & Kaasa, S. (2011). The dimensionality of pain: Palliative care and chronic pain patients differ in their reports of pain intensity and pain interference. Pain, 152 (7), 1608-20. The article draws attention to the significance of accuracy in assessment of pain in palliative care. There are different levels of pain among terminally ill patients, and hence the need for different pain management practices. The article proposes the specificity theory as the best pain management theory among cancer patients. The article uses quantitative research techniques to categorize cancer pain. The article identifies intensity and

Human Resource Management Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Resource Management - Term Paper Example Recommending a termination would for instance require a replacement and this means a costly recruitment process. It would also have financial repercussions, would affect other employees in the region and ultimately the company’s culture. It is therefore a particularly difficult decision to make but then a decision must be reached and one that serves the best interests of the business. It must be just and sufficient considering employment and labour laws. Gordo has been tolerated for a very long time and for this reason his behaviour has continued to determinate up the current level where he appears not to uphold company values any more. Considering the company’s PCP, Gordo’s unpleasant behaviour has already been discussed verbally in his presence and a written warning issued but he did not show any significant effort to turn things around. He appeared to continue with a careless attitude and would always give reasons for his financial underperformance hence a probation was necessary. Probation would also serve as a good notice to him that the company is concerned with his performance and therefore requires of him to improve or face dismissal. The situation got worse with the latest discovery touching on lack of professionalism. He has lost two important accounts; this has significant implications to the market share, business and growth and financial performance of the company. There have also been cases of customer complains on his conduct. He fails to respond to customer calls and more importantly a physician complained that he had attempted to convert what was company business to his personal business. Gordo now has the courage to discourage a customer against the company and offer to repair their machine at a cheaper price if paid in cash. This has actually crossed the lines in terms of professional conduct; such behaviour can never be allowed by any company

Hitlers Table Talk Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hitlers Table Talk - Term Paper Example Therefore, Hitler stated in his talks that he will always be before Catholic. He believed in God and considered Christianity as the basis of western culture. Hitler’s criticism in table talks in relation to Christianity is very authentic and contradicts earlier systems of Christians. He did this debate to take out his frustration in relation to the failure of German Protestant churches. Despite all these situations he continued to believe in Jesus Christ and considered him to be an Aryan who was against the Jews. In accordance with the Hitler’s table talks, Jesus is a true Christian and all Jewish teaching have been given by Paul. He translated all teachings in Jewish terms in order to promote equality among all men before God and insisted to prevent all kinds of human slavery, which created consequences in Roman Empire and European civilization. Hitler also focused on a united Christian church in Germany. Among various talks of Hitler, I have selected a talk made on 11 July 1941, because this talk mainly focuses on religions and have formed totally a different and broader perception towards it. This talk helped to identify a belief in God and religion influence on the society. Religion greatly affects human life and Hitler has shown this importance to people in this talk. He opposed the idea of human slavery through immigration of people from one nation to the other. However, in order to give a positive impact many benefits of migration were also highlighted in this talk. History shows that would have been ruled on the basis of National Socialism, but in the present condition of the world cannot rely just on one aspect. Religion and National Socialism cannot work together. Both are quite a different aspect. These controversies will not lead to a war but the main solution of it is to leave religion to solve the dilemma on its own without any persecution.  

The First Opium War Essay Example for Free

The First Opium War Essay The first opium war occurred between the years 1839-1842. In the year 1830, China was participating in a deeply disturbing trade; the exchange of Opium between Chinese natives and other foreigners who were mostly Britons. It was done illegally and most of the traders were exempted from taxes. This meant that the Chinese economy was suffering adversely since most of its currency was lost to an underground business. It also caused a lot of corruption among custom workers as there was no law regulating this trade. In addition to this many natives in China became addicted to this drug. This led to very stern action by the Chinese emperor in the year 1838; he executed all the natives involved in this illegal trade. The Chinese emperor decided to take the issue head on although there were some advisors who wanted him to legalize the trade. However, he said it was evil and could not even consider that option. In the year 1839, he sent a Commissioner to the Chinese harbor – Canton. He instructed the commissioner to confisticate all the opium present in foreign ships and failure to do so would lead to a death penalty. The British Naval Officer tried to discourage his citizens from engaging in this trade as it was tainting Britain’s image. His warnings landed on deaf years and this was one of the main reasons that caused the first opium war in China. The actual war The war was propelled by the fact that Britain was trying to force the Chinese to trade with them in opium. In the year 1839, Britain began its attack in the small town of Hong Kong. This was then followed by Guangzhou. The naval officer from Britain Sir Elliot ordered a blockage of the river sailing to the latter mentioned town. But this order was not followed by one particular ship hence causing problems for the naval officer. This brought about the sinking of plenty of Chinese ships. To counter this, the Chinese emperor prevented any assistance between the Chinese and the British. The British then decided to attack the Chinese harbor- Canton. They sent about four thousand fighters. They met at the mouth of the river and the Chinese were defeated at Ningbo in 1841. In the next year, the British occupied Shanghai after their victory and the war came to an end. The victors were rewarded with a one sided treaty which shall be examined below. (Mitsuko, 1971): Treaty of Nanjing The treaty was signed between the two countries that had participated in the First Opium War in the year 1842. The parties involved were as follows; the emperor of China, her majesty the Queen of Britain and Ireland, a general from the British company of East India, representatives from Canton, Chapoo, Ministers and governors. It was signed in order to forge a way forward so that the trade between these two countries could be controlled. The Treaty declared that the two countries will protect each others property and lives even when one member is residing in the other member’s country. It also spelled out some conditions for Britain’s residence in China’s towns. It reinforced the appointment of officers in five towns within China. Their purpose would be to ensure that British merchants were residing comfortably, without any unfair treatment and they were also to ensure inform the British Government about failure of the Chinese government to comply. The treaty also required that the Chinese government should surrender one town i. e. Hong Kong in which the British Law applied. In this town, merchants could be able to restock their ships. (Mitsuko, 1971): The Emperor of China was told to pay a compensation of six million dollars for threatening to take the lives of British citizens and imprisoning them too. This was the amount equal to the money paid in exchange for British subjects captured in the year 1839. The emperor of Britain demanded compensation for imposition of special Chinese merchants on the British subjects. These merchants did not pay them their dues This amount reached the tune of three million dollars. They were also told to let the British merchants to trade with whoever they wanted. The queen also demanded compensation for the finances wasted on the search for justice through commissioners and officers. This amount was about twelve million dollars. However, the Chinese government could deduct from this amount any compensation paid to British subjects after they won the war. Specifications were also laid out on how the4 compensation would be paid i. e. within three years time. The emperor of the State of China agreed to release any captives who may have been held as a form of punishment for engaging in the opium trade. In addition to this, the emperor was authorized tom release any members of his own country who may have been held for participating in the Opium trade. He was to sign a binding agreement in regards to this. The treaty also directed the emperor to include the ports where British merchants will reside in their tax plans. This tax must be announced to all people in the empire and it should not fluctuate. Lastly, the Chinese government would be free from British forces after completion of due payments and they were expected to make the designated towns free for trade. This treaty was then signed by all the due parties. Treaty of Bogue This treaty was signed in the year 1843 between the British and China. It was a modification of the first treaty signed i. e. The Treaty of Nan king. It was signed between commissioners of the two countries represented. It declared that export duties in the chosen five towns where British merchants were authorized was to be put in place. It also included the rules that would govern how trade will be conducted in those towns. This was signed by all the parties present. The treaty gave authority to traders to deal only in those designated five towns. It stated that any other towns were not to participate and if any native or foreigner was found doing so, they would be duly punished. It allowed the Chinese Government to confisticate their ships in those other towns if they were found guilty. The treaty gave a limit to the radius which British traders were supposed to reach with their merchandise. If they went beyond this limit, then they were liable to punishment by the full hands of the law. The treaty has also looked at the housing arrangement for residents in those five towns. It stipulated that the number of houses built should not be restricted by the Chinese Government but information should be conveyed to envoys about intentions to build. Rent charges in those five towns were also supposed to be the same charges that work over the entire country. The treaty controlled the privileges which the Chinese government would accord to other visitors to the countries that did not belong to the British government. They were expected to give the same treatment to British subjects. It also prevents British law breakers from escaping their mother countries into these ports. If these fugitives are found then they are subject to punishment from the government of China. They cannot seek political refuge in those towns and should be handed over to the British authority in those towns. There was also a ship that was to be given special authority to control and check on trade in those five ports. (Mitsuko, 1971) Treaty of Wanghia This treaty was signed between the United States and China in the year 1844. It was signed after the former mentioned treaty. Its purpose was to increase American involvement in Chinese trade. It was similar to the first two. The United States government made it unlawful to trade in Opium. (Kuo, 1933) It also allowed ended the law that restricted foreigners from teaching themselves the Chinese language. Thirdly, it disallowed fluctuation of tariffs within ports. Also, the Chinese government was forbidden from punishing or judging US citizens residing in their country. It was only supposed to hand offenders to the United States representatives. It also authorized the US citizens to buy land within those five ports mention in the first two treaties. (Swisher, 1953): Treaty of Whampoa This treaty was signed between China and France in the year 1844. It was aimed at involving France in trade within China. It had similar contents to those present in the other treaties it had signed after the First Opium War. Legacy of the Opium war on China The war caused a defeat by the Chinese government; consequently, it paved a way for high influx of many foreigners i. e. the British, followed by the Americans and eventually the France. The immediate implication was a high increase in opium within China. This led to increased tension at first because the Chinese culture was quite different from any of these foreigners; it also offended many natives because they felt like the drug was against their religious teachings. (Chang, 1964) On the positive side, China gained from this high influx by growing economically. It also became more developed as many ideas and goods were introduced into the country. It was a big milestone in China’s road to modernization. Reference Chang, H. (1964): Commissioner Lin and the Opium War. ; Harvard University Press Kuo, C. (1933): Caleb Cushing and the Treaty of Wanghia, 1844; the Journal of Modern History Swisher (1953): Chinas Management of the American Barbarians; a Study of Sino-American Relations, 1841–1861; Far Eastern Publications, Yale University. Mitsuko, I. (1971): Modern Asia and Africa, Readings in World History Vol. 9; New York: Oxford University Press,

Incidence of Finger Defects: Gender Comparison

Incidence of Finger Defects: Gender Comparison Abstract The study was done to see the incidence of the finger defect and to develop a nomenclature system with the help of questionnaire, clinical examination, and radiographs of the finger defects obtained in two standard planes.The results of this study demonstrate that finger injuries were common males than females and the defect was more common in the right hands and in middle fingers. Amputation was more common at the level of distal phalanges. Keywords: Finger injuries, machinery, car accident 1. Introduction Fingers are amongst the most mobile and active parts of the body. Fingers are injured daily activities like working, eating, playing and other activities[1]. The congenital anomalies involving finger or the finger injury creates anxious ofproblems as well as long term functional disability and esthetic [1,2]. It is important to understand the incidence and causes of finger injuries. This will help the clinician for the diagnosis and treatment planning.The amount of tissue remaining, condition of the bone and the number of fingers involved have to be considered when choosing suitable treatment option [3]. Several microsurgical techniques such as toe-foot-transfer, lengthening procedure and the use of osteo-cutaneous flap may offer opportunities to reconstruct the lost or missing phalanges [4]. The use of bone-anchored implant retained silicone finger prosthesis represents an alternative technique.Bone anchoring method is used since 1994 for the rehabilitation of finger defects [5]. The aim of this study is to study the incidence of the finger defect in Golden Jubilee Medical Center, Mahidol University from 2012 to 2014 by developing a nomenclature system developed by Maxillofacial Prosthetic and Orthopedic Department with the help of history, clinical examination, and radiographs of the remaining stump of the finger and digit. 2. Methods This retrospective study of thepatient’s record of the finger defect between 2012 to 2014 at the Golden Jubilee Medical Center. This study involved total 10 patients and 16 treated fingers.The study protocol was approved by the Committee in University Hospital. The demographic data collected were include the sex, causes of the defect, involved hand, finger and digital bone as shown in Table 1 and 2. The radiographs of the finger defects were obtained in two standard planes in each patient (Figure 1). The mode of treatments received was also recorded. The Mahidol University [MU]system consists of 1 alphabetic and 2 numeric symbols. Each hand is composed of carpel, metacarpal and the digits with Phalanges. The alphabetic symbol indicates the right â€Å"R† or left â€Å"L† side. The 5 digits in each hand (Thumb, Index, Middle, Ring and Little finger) are denoted by the numbers as elaborated in Table 3. Each digit has 3 bones i.e. proximal, middle and distal phalanx except the thumb which is comprised of only proximal and distal phalanx. The remaining of each phalanx bone in each digit is further indicated with the numerical symbols (Table 4). During the evaluation of the cases, the partial remaining of the phalanx bone were also observed. These incomplete or partial remaining of phalanx bone is denoted by the alphabet â€Å"I†. 3. Results This study showed the incidence of finger defect was greater in male (60%) and the common acquired causes of the finger defect were machinery (44.44%), car accident (11.11%), explosion (11.11%), assault (11.11%), others (22.22%) as shown in the Table 3. The finger defect was present more on right side (70%) and the involved fingers were as thumb (16.66%), index finger (22.22%), middle finger (27.77%), ring finger (22.22%), little finger (11.11%) as shown in the Table 4. The involved digit were as distal phalange (35.29%), distal and middle (23.35%), distal, middle and proximal (29.41%), and, distal and proximal (11.17%). The diagnosis according to the MU system was described in the Table 4. 4. Discussion In this study, the higher incidence of finger defect in male may be related to the occupation and the activities. Normally, right hand side is dominant during function and work therefore, the defect was observed more on right hand side of males. In female patients, the mishaps occurred during domestic activities for instance cutting and chopping action therefore, left hand side was mostly affected. The type of the finger defect (involved finger, number and level of amputations) results in the compromise in the specific type of the function. The common functions of the fingers are as follows: thumb is used for writing, grasping, holding;index finger is used for pressing and grasping; middle fingers isused for writing, grasping and holding compared to ring and little finger. Regarding the impact on function, the effect from the distal amputation are minimal than the proximal levels. This also affects the patient’s motivation towards restoration. The cause of the finger defect is also related with the resultant anatomy of the defect. The finger defect that results from sharp object or burn are not much deformed compared to the defects due to an accident and outside activities. The accident and outside activities often results is crushing of the finger bone and results in deformed remaining stump which is difficult to restore. Regarding the treatment of finger defect, mostly, the surgical rehabilitation doesn’t result the best esthetic and causes the disability in the donor site [6], therefore, prosthetic rehabilitation is preferred. The vacuum or implant retained are two options for the prosthetic rehabilitation which is decided depending upon the level of amputation, extent of the defect and structures preserved on the injured finger or hand. Treatment of the finger defect depends on the remaining stump of the amputated finger which should be minimally 1.5 cm in length for the conventional friction fit silicone prostheses [7].The shorter stumps may cause the problem of instability of the prostheses. Therefore, the role of implant becomes important which also help some level of tactile sensation. The quality of the life after the finger prosthesis is increased. Regarding the surgical techniques, one-stage technique for the implant placement in implant retained finger prosthesis is safe, reliable and efficient in metacarpal and phalangeal bone if primary stability is optimal [8].Finite Element Analysis (FEA) have been used to study the effects of various shapes of dental implants on distribution of stresses generated in the surrounding bone and to determine an optimal thread shape for better stress distribution. The non-uniform stress pattern at bone and might induce biomechanical overloading failures in implant and bone [9, 10]. The limitation of the current study is the less number of the patients. This study only included the patients who refused for the surgical rehabilitation and referred for the prosthetic rehabilitation after the surgical amputation. 5. Conclusion Finger injuries were common males than females and the defect was more common in the right hands and in middle fingers. Amputation was more common at the level of distal phalanges. Prosthetic replacement using finger prosthesis helped to improve the quality of the life of the patients. Conflict of Interests The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Eating Disorders in Elite Athletes: Prevalence and Risks Eating Disorders in Elite Athletes: Prevalence and Risks Being an elite level athlete, an immense amount of pressure is placed on athletes to perform at their very best, often times leaving them yearning to achieve the top physical fitness that they can reach. This level of physical ‘fitness’ and ‘leanness’ has been not only exaggerated in sports, but also in modern media that is associated with the industry that is today’s sports. Over the years, this has lead to eating disorders in those not only at an elite level, but in all sports. Disordered eating has substantial and devastating effects on the physical body, although it stems from a mental illness. Not only is the prevalence of eating disorders in high-level female athletes apparent, but also the associated risks with the development of the disorder are detrimental to performance. It is important to note the susceptibility of athletes to acquire the eating disorder, in addition to taking a closer look at the variability of the development in weight de pendent sports that focus on leanness versus non-weight dependent sports (Wells, 2015). In addition, once it has been understood how disordered eating arises, it is key to look into the prevention of the potential development of eating disorders in the elite level of athletics. The purpose of this paper is to look at the prevalence of eating disorders in athletes compared to their non-athlete counterparts, the risk factor of developing the disorder in a lean vs. non-lean sport, as well as the physiological harm an eating disorder can cause and ways to prevent the development of one. The compiled look at these ideas is important in helping to better the overall mental health of the athletes and recognize where these behaviors stem from, to hopefully lower the frequency in the upcoming years. Eating disorders in the athletic population, more specifically the female athletic population, are obtaining increasing attention. (Brownell, et al., 1992) However, the exact causes of eating disorders are not known, and look to be a combination of psychological, biological and social factors. In studies, there have been claims that female athletes look to be more vulnerable to eating disorders, more specifically to Anorexia Nervosa, Anorexia Athletica and Bulimia Nervosa than those females in the general population. (Sundgot-Borgen, 1996) Amongst the rationale proposed for the high occurrence of both subclinical and clinical eating disorders among female athletes includes the â€Å"attraction-to-sport† hypothesis (Thompson et al., 1993), exercise induced anorexia nervosa (Epling   and Pierce, 1988), dieting and body weight cycling (Brownell et al., 1992), personality factors (Yates, 1989), early start of sport-specific training (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994), traumatic events (Sund got-Borgen, 1994), and the impact of coaches as well as their strength trainers (Rosen and Hough, 1988). In a study conducted in Norway, the clinical and subclinical eating disorders in young, modern rhythmic gymnasts on the national team were assessed. The subjects of the study included 12 members of the national team, ranging in ages from thirteen to twenty years old, and they were individually paired with nonathletic control subjects. All of the subjects took part in a structured clinical interview for eating disorders, as well as medical examinations and dietary analysis. The results showed that two of the participants met the criteria for anorexia nervosa, while two others met the requirements for anorexia athletica. Every single one of the gymnasts were dieting at some point during the study, although they were already extremely lean. In relation to their non-athletic counterparts, the athletes scored significantly higher than their age-matched control when assessed for the eating disorder inventory. (Sundgot-Borgen, 1996) Furthermore, Beals and Monroe in Arizona suggest that the prevalence of eating disorders, as well as the excessive concerns regarding body weight in female athletes, are increasing constantly. In addition to the pressures placed upon female athletes to improve their performances as well as their physiques, the general sociocultural demand thrust upon women to be thin frequently results in unlikely body weight and size goals. (Beals and Monroe, 1994). Looking at the associated risk of developing an eating disorder as an athlete, Folscher and her peers observed that worldwide female participation in endurance events might place the athletes at risk for the female athlete triad. In the study, only about 7.5% of the female marathoners even knew about the triad’s existence, despite the fact that 44.1% of the athletes were high risk for developing the triad. Around one-third of the participants showed disordered eating behaviors with almost half reported restrictive eating behaviors. The study found that the athletes were more likely to experience disordered eating when participating in an elite event, when compared to those that were not. (Folscher et al., 2015) In addition, in the athletic training and health centers at National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I, II, and III institutions, studies were conducted comparing athletes to non-athletes using questionnaires. In contrast to the other studies, the findings were generally positive, indicating that female student athletes have high levels of self-concept, and are at low risk to develop eating disorders. However, even with these encouraging results, it does not mean that all concerns can be overlooked, seeing as though there are still athletes who are at risk to develop an eating disorder (McLester, 2014). Continuing on the topic of prevalence, in a study comparing disordered eating behaviors in undergraduate female collegiate athletes and non-athletes, Reinking and Alexander found that female athletes did not exhibit more disordered eating symptoms in general, however, the data suggested that lean-sport athletes were more susceptible to developing an eating disorder than their non-lean sport counterparts. (Reinking, 2005). Overall, the prevalence of eating disorders in female athletes at an elite level is gaining more attention amongst competitors. A combination of psychological, social factors and biological predispositions lead to the eventual development of disordered eating among the high-level female athletic population, and in more cases than not, elite athletes display an increased risk for the development of eating disorders than their non-athletic colleagues, in addition to being at risk for having a higher prevalence of eating disordered by close to 14 to 19% compared to their male counterparts (Anderson, 2012). Sports that emphasize body composition (also known as lean sports), are frequently associated with driving women towards disordered eating habits in order to reach an ‘elite’ athlete body type. (Beals, 2004) In a study conducted by Wells et al., eighty-three varsity female athletes from eight separate Campbell University sports teams were observed, and were separated based on lean and non-lean sports. The results of the study showed that there was a significant difference between lean and non-lean sports, indicating that lean sports exhibit a higher risk for developing an eating disorder when compared to athletes participating in non-lean sports. In addition, it appears that a likely influence of disordered eating in these female athletes emerge from external social influences (Wells, 2015).    Likewise, in a 2016 study derived from German Young Olympic Athletes (GOAL), the researchers objectively looked at the factors regarding eating disorder pathology in female youth athletes, as there are scarce studies that focus on the elite adolescents. During this stage in their life, they are highly vulnerable developmentally and are affected not only by general but sport-specific risk factors as well. The results concluded that those who were at high risk for developing a disorder comprised of athletes in weight dependent sports (lean sports), in addition to athletes who are high on negative affectivity, female athletes in general, and male athletes who participate in endurance, technical or power sports. These athletes that competed in lean sports showed signs of compensatory behaviors to influence their body weight, in addition to reporting increased levels of depression and anxiety than their athlete counterparts without eating disorder pathology. (Giel, et al., 2016) Risk factors are key in understanding the concept of the susceptibility of groups of athletes in the development of the disorder, as well as certain trigger factors that could be responsible for precipitating the exacerbation or onset of disordered eating. In a study conducted by Sundgot-Borgen, elite female athletes were assessed to identify risk and trigger factors for anorexia athletica, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa. Of the athletes studies, the prevalence of the clinical and subclinical pathologies were significantly higher in sports that emphasized leanness, or a specific weight, than in those sports where body image is considered less important. (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994) Further, athletes that perform at higher levels of athletic competition show increased levels of pathological clinical and subclinical eating disorders. As a population as a whole that have been identified for the development of disordered eating, identifying subgroups within of who is more likely to develop the malady is key in finding a way to prevent it in the future. Generally, athletes in sports that emphasize lean physique, as well as weight restrictions in the sport are more vulnerable to progress into an eating disorder than those athletes that do not compete in those types of sports, as well as non-athlete controls (Picard, 1999). Eating disorders can be devastating not only psychologically, but physiologically as well. The complications stem from three main mechanisms: undereating, purging, and low body weight. Long-term eating disorders reduce the quality of muscular fitness, leading to a constant state of tiredness and weakness that is extremely difficult to recover from. In addition to the physical manifestations, the psychosocial functioning of athletes is severely under functioning as well. The overvaluation of shape, weight and eating control, and using them as such to determine one’s self-worth are regarded as the main psychopathology of eating disorders. Interpersonal functioning is impaired, and mood and cognition are negatively affected, in severe cases detrimentally influencing not only education but physical performance of the athlete as well.   (El Ghoch, 2013) Recognition that intervention programs and preventative methods are necessary have been apparent for quite some time now, allowing research to shift towards suggestions in prevention methods. Looking at several health educational intervention methods for collegiate female athletes, Abood and Black found four that worked as ways to aid in prevention. Intervening in the athletes understanding of self-esteem, and exploring the factors that affect self-esteem, including body image, positive and negative self-talk, realistic and unrealistic expectations, as well as feedback from peers, was a key way in which to alter the course of the development of the disorder. Stress management to counteract the anxiety derived from the disorder was effective at reframing the mindset, using methods such as diaphragmatic breathing, progressive relaxation and visualization as coping methods. Education on nutrition was further established as a preventative measure, where caloric needs of the female athlet e were discussed with them, as well as nutrition beliefs and myths, and the athletes were given guidelines for healthy approaches to weight management. Finally, goal setting education as a method to reduce anxiety of body image distortions was established through short and long term goals, synchronization of those goals with a coach and the evaluation of those goals with others. An education focus on the importance of health instead of attention to the harmful effects of pathogenic weight loss appear to be a more productive method of producing positive changes. Participating in educational interventions in athletes who are at risk or have already developed the disorder seems to protect from further decline in self-esteem, and reduces the athletes’ drive for thinness (Abood, 2000). Prevention of eating disorders focuses on thwarting the emergence of the illness or disorder, typically by identifying the correlations and risk factors that may contribute to the development of the affliction. The American Academy of Pediatrics, the International Olympic Committee Medical Commission, and the American College of Sports Medicine have recommended national and international sports federations to implement policies to eliminate harmful weight-loss practices (Coelho, 2014). Primary prevention focuses on education and instruction to prevent extreme dieting and the onset of the eating disorder. Furthermore, protecting athletes from factors that can predispose them to the development of the disorder should begin as early as 9-11 years of age (Sundgot-Borgen, 1993). Numerous studies have shown that various intervention methods have positive results. These interventional programs addressed not only the de-stigmatization of eating disorders through discussion, but also the harm ful effects of pathogenic weight loss, and healthy nutritional practices to implement for sufficient energy availability (Coelho, 2014). Furthermore, because of the sport specific correlations and risk factors, prevention programs should be shaped to each individual type of sport, as well as various athlete groups (more specifically adolescents, due to their developmental stage and susceptibility) (Coelho, 2014). Not only should the athletes themselves be informed, but also coaches and health professionals that directly interact with the athlete should be better educated. In response to the epidemic that are eating disorders, the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA) released a position statement on the prevention of eating disorders in athletes, which recommended athletic trainers as well as health professionals to be able to first detect signs of disordered eating, including clinical features and behavioral warning signs, and identify predisposing risk factors. Some of the psychological and behavioral characteristics that are identified in athletes with eating disorders are dieting which is unnecessary, ritualistic eating patters, social withdrawal, depression, compulsiveness, etc. These signs can be apparent or not, but having a professional who can recognize these symptoms is key in the prevention of further development. In addition, mandatory educational programs for all involved in athletics should be implemented annually, describing the risks associated with eating disorders. (Bonci, et al., 2008) An example of an educational program that had high success rate was implemented in a high-risk school setting in 1999. The world-class residential ballet school housed both female and male students aged 10-18, and employed a prevention program that followed the paradigm of health promoting schools as outline by the World Health Organization, involving systemic changes in addition to direct interventions with students. The study used various measures to compare between the baseline cohort and later ones, which revealed significant reductions in disordered eating patterns and attitudes about body shape and eating (Piran, 1999). Being able to recognize the signs and then preventing the eating disorder from developing is key in the day-to-day lives of athletes who participate at a high-level, or anticipate to compete at an elite status eventually. Understanding the serious physiological harm disordered eating can lead to is an important aspect of prevention, as well as establishing social circumstances and high-risk situations that can lead to an eating disorder. Education is one of the most profound ways to prevent the development of eating disorders, and should be implemented across the board at any high-level athletic institution.   Future Research Directions and Implications for Practice Understanding what the prevalence, and the associated risks are with eating disorders can be practically implicated across the board. Acknowledging the problem that modern athletics face with the prevalence of eating disorders, coaches are just one group of people that need to be more aware of the imposed demands they place on athletes. Using cooperative methods, coaches are able to provide practical solutions to the issues of overtraining and under eating, as well as be able to identify signs of eating disorders earlier (Thompson, 1993). In the clinical setting, more specifically in collegiate athletics by health professionals, understanding the signs and symptoms, as well as being able to identify the high-risk athletes who are more susceptible to developing an eating disorder based on the sport they participate in (Giel, 2016). This has even been exemplified through the NATA position statement, where understanding all aspects of eating disorder emergence in athletes has lead to increased prevention, as well as interception of those who were on the track to developing an eating disorder based on their participation in elite athletics (Bonci, et al., 2008). In addition to coaches and health professionals, athletes themselves being able to recognize the unhealthy behaviors and coping tactics in regards to their own idea of body and self, as well as understanding what is expected of them in terms of aesthetic and performance, is essential in the prevention and decrease of eating disorder prevalence across the board. Being able to apply the knowledge from educational programs, and practically implicating not only those but also the identifying risk factors are essential in the future decrease of eating disorders (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994). An interesting area for future research would be to explore the inclusion of individualized health-enhancing physical activity programs in patients that have been diagnosed with eating disorders, and how that would play into the athletes return to participation of their competitive sport, following withdrawal due to the illness. Being able to healthily control an athlete’s relationship between sport and mind is essential to the safe return to participation, and denoting a positive relationship between the physical activity programs for patients recovering from eating disorders would be essential. This area of study has just been funded by the NIH, and will most likely be published within the next couple of years. Further research could also be applied in the development of the disorder in pre-pubescent versus pubescent versus post-pubescent athletes, and compare how the susceptibility in the development of the disorder changes based on age, more specifically athletes who begin competing at an elite level at an early age. As depicted in the study by Giel, there is a lack of knowledge on adolescent athletes and how age plays a role in the development of eating disorders at an elite level, and it would be helpful for not only health professionals, but also coaches and athletes to understand how age plays a factor. (Giel, 2016) In addition, a longitudinal controlled-large scale intervention study would be extremely helpful in identifying not only prevalence, but also risk factors and prevention methods. This study would be most beneficial if it was conducted based on varying sports, but also sex specific, as well as denoted based on age groups. Conclusion Overall, eating disorders are a common and very serious health problem. As advanced as we have become as a nation, the athletic world should be better equipped for not only preventing the emergence of these problems, but also identifying the prevalence among athletes as well as what sport specific factors may lead to its manifestation. The prevalence of eating disorders are found to be higher in elite level female athletes than in their non-athletic peers, or in the general population (Reinking, 2005). Even amongst athletes, the prevalence of eating disorders varies based on the specific sport that is competed in, with weight focused or ‘lean’ sport competitors having an increased risk of developing a disorder, whether it be clinical or subclinical (Picard, 1999). Further, the implementations of programs that are focused on not only the education of athletes but health professionals as well have been shown to decrease the prevalence of eating disorders (Coelho, 2014). Us ing this knowledge about eating disorders, the information should be applied throughout everyday participation in athletics, not matter what level it is at. However, there is still a need to learn more about the development of the disorder age-wise, as well as the enactment of a long term study focusing on all aspects of the eating disorder development, based on specific sports and age ranges. The take home message of this paper is that athletes, coaches, and health professionals alike should be better educated at understanding the prevalence of eating disorders in athletes compared to their non-athletic counterparts, in addition to coping with the risks that stem from participating in a ‘lean’ sport, while at the same time knowing how to solve the problem if it were to arise. References Abood, DA. (2000) Health education prevention for eating disorders among college female athletes. American Journal of Health Behavior.24(3):209. http://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.24.3.6 Anderson C, Petrie TA. (2012) Prevalence of disordered eating and pathogenic weight control behaviors among NCAA division in female collegiate gymnasts and swimmers. Res Q Exerc Sport 83(1): 120-124, Beals, K. A., & Manore, M. M. (1994). The Prevalence and Consequences of Subclinical Eating Disorders in Female Athletes.  International Journal of Sport Nutrition,4(2), 175-195. doi:10.1123/ijsn.4.2.175 Beals KA. (2004) Disordered Eating Among Athletes: A Comprehensive Guide for Health Professionals: Human Kinetics. Bonci, C. M., Bonci, L. J., Granger, L. R., Johnson, C. L., Malina, R. M., Milne, L. W., . . . Vanderbunt, E. M. (2008). National Athletic Trainers Association Position Statement: Preventing, Detecting, and Managing Disordered Eating in Athletes.  Journal of Athletic Training,43(1), 80-108. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-43.1.80 Brownell, K.D., J. Rodin, and J.H. Wilmore (Eds.). (1992) Eating, Body Weight and Performance in Athletes. Disorders of Modem Society. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, pp. 3-14. Coelho, G. M. de O., Gomes, A. I. da S., Ribeiro, B. G., & Soares, E. de A. (2014). Prevention of eating disorders in female athletes.  Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine,  5, 105–113. http://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S36528 El Ghoch, M., Soave, F., Calugi, S., & Dalle Grave, R. (2013). Eating Disorders, Physical Fitness and Sport Performance: A Systematic Review.  Nutrients,  5(12), 5140–5160. http://doi.org/10.3390/nu5125140 Epling, W.F., and W.D. Pierce. Activity based anorexia nervosa. Int. J. Eating Disorders 7:475-485, 1988 Folscher, L.-L., Grant, C. C., Fletcher, L., & Janse van Rensberg, D. C. (2015). Ultra-Marathon Athletes at Risk for the Female Athlete Triad.  Sports Medicine Open,  1, 29. http://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-015-0027-7 Giel, K. E., Hermann-Werner, A., Mayer, J., Diehl, K., Schneider, S., Thiel, A., & Zipfel, S. (2016). Eating disorder pathology in elite adolescent athletes.  International Journal of Eating Disorders,49(6), 553-562. doi:10.1002/eat.22511 McLester, C. N., Hardin, R., & Hoppe, S. (2014). Susceptibility to Eating Disorders Among Collegiate Female Student–Athletes.  Journal of Athletic Training,  49(3), 406–410. http://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-49.2.16 ­ Reinking, M. F., & Alexander, L. E. (2005). Prevalence of Disordered-Eating Behaviors in Undergraduate Female Collegiate Athletes and Nonathletes.  Journal of Athletic Training,  40(1), 47–51. Rosen, L.W., and D.O. Hough. (1988) Pathogenic weight-control behavior in female college gymnasts. Phys. Sportsmed. 16(9): 141- 146. Picard, C. L. (1999). The Level of Competition as a Factor for the Development of Eating Disorders in Female Collegiate Athletes.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence,28(5), 583-594. doi:10.1023/a:1021606710398 Piran, N. (1999). Eating Disorders: A Trial of Prevention in a High Risk School Setting.  Journal of Primary Prevention,20(1), 75-90. doi:10.1023/A:1021358519832 Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1993). Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Elite Female Athletes.  International Journal of Sport Nutrition,3(1), 29-40. doi:10.1123/ijsn.3.1.29 Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1994) Risk and trigger factors for the development of eating disorders in female elite athletes. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26(4):414-419. Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1996). Eating Disorders, Energy Intake, Training Volume, and Menstrual Function in High-Level Modern Rhythmic Gymnasts [Abstract].  International Journal of Sports Nutrition,6(2), 100-109. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsn.6.2.100 Thompson, R.A., and R.T. Sherman. (1993) Helping Athletes With Eating Disorders. Human Kinetics. Yates, A. (1989) Current perspectives on the eating disorders: History, psychological and biological aspects. J. Am. Acad. Child Adoles. Psychiatry 28(6):8 13-828. 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McDonalds Employee Relations

McDonalds Employee Relations Q.a. What may McDonalds have considered in order to establish their approaches to collective bargaining in both Germany and the UK? To answer the above question we first need to know about basics of collective bargaining where Collective Bargaining is defined as the process of turning disagreements into agreements in an orderly fashion. Collective bargaining is the process followed to establish a mutually agreed set of rules and decisions between unions and employers for matters relating to employment. This is a regulating process dealing with the regulation of management and conditions of employment. Collective bargaining is used as the negotiation process between employees and employers with unions acting as the representatives of employees. The entire process depends on the bargaining powers of the concerned parties. In line with the above definition McDonalds may have considered the approach and settings of collective bargains as an important issue of employee relations. The German setting and approach McDonalds may have considered establishing their approaches to collective bargaining in Germany: The traditional collective approach to Employee Relations (ER) in German companies is deeply rooted in the particular configuration of the German Industrial Relations (IR) system. This is characterized by a high degree of regulation and a dense, encompassing institutional infrastructure that imposes a uniform set of institutional constraints on companies, but at the same time provides incentives for employers to accept institutional constraints. McDonalds, to establish its approaches to collective bargaining this ER and IR framework may have been considered in first instance. In addition, the institutional structure is highly integrated with strong linkages, not only within the IR system, but also to the wider German businesses system. Key elements of the German model, to which the majority of German companies subscribe, are the centrally co-ordinated sector based collective bargaining system and employee representation at domestic level via the works council system equipped with sta tutory participation and consultation rights. Food industry in Germany is not beyond this mechanism where McDonalds considerations regarding collective bargaining approach must have encompassed with statutory participation and employee consultation and codetermination rights. Indeed, German employers have to negotiate a densely structured institutional framework inside and outside the company level. The German approach to collective bargaining is also underwritten by strong labor market legislation and an elaborate welfare system. Despite growing interest in individual bargaining style direct employee involvement mechanisms, their uptake has so far been comparably modest in German companies (Sperling, 1997). Because of the wide ranging rights of information, consultation and co-determination in the German food industry, the use of individual voice mechanisms is relatively unimportant in the German setting where collective bargaining still has the paramount influence. Therefore, in the international context, McDonalds may have considered a propensity to support a collective approach to ER in their international operations by recognizing trade unions, engaging in collective bargaining and establishing strong workplace level employee representation systems. The UK Setting and the UK Approach to Employee Relations In contrast to Germany, the contemporary British system of collective bargaining is characterized by a weak regulatory framework and a thin, fragmented institutional infrastructure, which imposes relatively few barriers and constraints on labour relations practices. The fragmentation of the institutional structure goes hand in hand with weak linkages both within the IR system and in connection to the wider national business system which obviously includes food industry in the UK. Because of the relative permissiveness of the contemporary IR context, the UK seems to be a particularly suitable country for McDonalds, as subsidiary, to explore the country of origin effect in international operations, since home country approaches to ER can be transferred relatively unconstrained by host country institutional arrangements. However, to uncover the existence of possible ownership effects it is necessary to establish the differential space between the home and the host country ER approaches. Contrary to the German experience, no distinct stereotypical UK ER approach can be identified. Traditionally the cornerstone of labor relations was the pluralist workplace industrial relations system, which subsequently collapsed in the 1980s in the wake of the neo-liberal labor market policies under the Thatcher government. These reforms are most important issue to be considered in establishing collective bargaining approaches in the UK which have encouraged employers to dispense with collective labour relations and to individualise ER along the lines of US style HRM by end of the 1990s a collective approach to ER is no longer representative of the economy as a whole, but is increasingly confined to the public sector and a dwindling minority of private sector companies. In the private sector, trade union recognition collapsed throughout the 1980s and 1990s and with it the incidence of workplace level trade union representatives. The institution of collective bargaining dramaticall y declined. By 1998, two-thirds of private sector employees had their pay fixed by management decision without any union involvement. Here, employees are neither represented by collective voice mechanisms, nor do they enjoy a comprehensive individual voice mechanism. In case of establishing McDonalds may have considered those conditions and changing mechanisms to establish their approaches to collective bargaining efficiently. Factors May have been considered by McDonalds National Legislation: National legislation must have been considered by the McDonalds in establishing their approached towards collective bargaining within the industry both in UK and Germany. In the UK legislation there is no specific preference regarding the mode of employee or industrial relationship for MNEs like McDonalds. So McDonalds is well known as anti-union giant in the UK and their approach towards collective bargaining is strictly negative. In Germany on the other hand, has a highly regulated industrial relations system which, in theory at least, provides considerable constraints on the employee relations practices of MNEs. As a result McDonald had to thing the statutory bindings and regulations constraints regarding approaches to collective bargaining. Codetermination and collective bargaining rights The McDonalds in case of both Germany and UK has considered these rights as a different approach. German workers enjoy a dual system of representation, collective bargaining rights and co-determination rights through the institution of the works council and the supervisory board. Together with codetermination and collective bargaining rights, these legally enforceable and constituted rights appear to provide German employees with significant power resources compared to UK employees. So McDonalds must have considered the issues of the both rights of the employees before establishing their bargaining approach. Size of Franchise: The McDonalds corporation established itself in the UK in 1974, in Germany in 1971. The corporation currently has well over 800 stores in Germany amongst approximately 65% outlets are franchisee where in there are a similar number of stores in the UK with some 20% franchisee with approximately 45,000 employees in each country. In this case being a fast-food market leader in both countries McDonalds have considered the size of franchise. The franchise aspect influence collective bargaining issues through local entity and regulations involvement. So size of franchise is also a factor that may have been considered. Unioin Membership: McDonald also may have considered Union membership. German unions are arguably better organized and have retained a position of relative strength compared to those in the UK. Union membership at McDonalds in Germany and in the German fast-food industry is very small at around 5 per cent. However, these low percentages are still higher than the percentage of union membership at McDonalds and the fast-food industry in the UK. So this issue is an important consideration in establishing Macdonalds collective bargaining approach. The increasingly anti-union climate: The increasingly anti-union climate in the 80s and early 90s has encouraged Macdonalds in the UK to withhold or withdraw union recognition, and discouraged employees from joining unions and posed difficulties for recruitment. In Germany, union membership remains at around 5 per cent at McDonalds. The findings suggest that it is only where a works council has been established where still there is better union practice than the UK. So this consideration may have been involved in planning McDonalds approach towards collective bargaining. Characteristics of Workforce and Nature of the industry: McDonalds have considered both the factors in case of both countries to design its approach towards collective bargaining. Redundancy and employee apathy: Redundancy and employee apathy amongst part-time, temporary, foreign or young workers undoubtedly play an important role in the low or non-existent levels of union membership. So this factor may have been considered in both UK and Germany. Strong corporate culture: Strong corporate cultures are seen as instilling appropriate behaviors and. This is essentially what is argued here with regard to the non-union approach of McDonalds in both the countries. McDonalds Anti-union belief: McDonalds is basically a non-union company and intends to stay that way. About unionization in the UK once McDonalds stated thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. unionization has risen its ugly head over the years, but you know, we feel that we offer a good deal to people, all kinds of ways in which we can communicate, so that if there was a problem they can bring it to management, we feel that we dont need unions. But in Germany McDonalds never been outspoken like in UK about union. Public image Macdonalds has a big public image and brand reputation which may have been considered both in the UK and Germany to establish collective bargaining approaches. Employer Associations Employer associations in Germany are stronger than UK. So the MsDonaldS approach in the UK is different from that of Germany. Q.b. How may McDonalds have considered individual bargaining as an alternative or additional approach in both Germany and the UK? What benefits and/or problems may this have brought in both countries? Individual bargaining: Individual bargaining is the process by which an employer and an employee negotiate an individual contract of employment, regulating the terms and conditions of employment. Individual Bargaining: Advantages The main advantage of individual bargaining is it is a single voice and thus there is no conflict in matters Another advantage of individual bargaining is that it expresses the views and opinions of one person and thus there is no compromising Individual Bargaining: Disadvantages The main disadvantage of individual bargaining is that the manager will not take a lot of notice of just one persons views or opinions and therefore nothing will happen Thus there is not a lot of chance that individual bargaining will have an influence on company decisions and policies. Collective Bargaining: Advantages The main advantage of collective bargaining is that the manager will not take a great deal of time in deciding on what action to take on an individual level. The employees have greater influence in the final decision the manager will take. There is also a chance of the employees getting what they demand. Collective Bargaining: Disadvantages The main disadvantage of collective bargaining is that it is seen as depriving the individual worker of their individual liberty and voice. The major changes in the industrial relations in UK i.e. a shift away from collective bargaining towards individual argaining were in the favour of McDonalds own strategy. The turn down in the union membership in both UK and Germany also helps McDonalds to practice the individual bargaining in their organization. Benefits: Improvement in the relationship of management and workers within the organization as it is evident from the statement of John cooke McDonalds US Labour relations chief as: We feel that we offer a good deal to people, all kinds of ways in which we can communicate, so that if there was a problem they can bring it to management. As employees are generally unaware of their rights they can take advantage of the situation to save their costs. As example is given cleaning of uniforms. And also regarding pay, performance related pay, probation and notice for redundancy, paid leave. Individual workers can never be a threat for McDonalds where there may have a chance in the existence of trade union. Disadvantages: Loss of public image in Germany that subsequently decrease their sale growth in German market. Large compensation need to provide for violating employees rights in different work place. Q. c. How may the approach to collective bargaining in Germany and the UK influence employee relations for McDonalds internationally? McDonalds opposition to trade unions is now well-documented; however, the extent to which it can operate without unions or can avoid or undermine collective bargaining with unions and/or statutory works councils varies considerably in different countries and over time. Consequently the ability of national unions and their GUFs to improve pay levels and conditions of work has been limited, variable and by no means static. This is nicely illustrated by McDonalds operations in New Zealand where the corporation responded pragmatically to changes in government and labour legislation, excluding unions from and then returning to collective bargaining ahead of law reforms aimed at strengthening unions in 2000, but continued to keep unions out of its restaurants wherever possible. Attempts to regulate McDonalds employment conditions are therefore an ongoing struggle in which without pro-union labour law, unions have little chance of organising workers and even less chance of establishing collective agreements. This may come as no surprise in countries such as the and Ireland where unions have had either no success or short-lived successes in gaining union recognition only to be denied before collective agreements can be established or enforced. However, even unions located in countries with more stringent labour legislation (e.g. Denmark, the Netherlands, France, Italy, Germany, Sweden and Norway) have had varying success in achieving some improvements in employee representation, pay and conditions of work and even where improvements have been achieved they are often under threat. Union attempts to increase the number of union-backed works councils and establish a company-level works council (Gesamtbetriebsrat) have completely failed, resulting from a number of sophisticated union-busting practices. Furthermore, despite some success in persuading McDonalds to accept collective bargaining in Germany in the late 1980s, McDonalds withdrew from collective bargaining in 2002 and has threatened to deal exclusively with a yellow union. In Denmark, where average union membership is much higher than Germany and labour law is equally stringent, McDonalds only agreed to bargain collectively after a year of conflict and boycotts involving other Danish unions and support from Finnish and Swedish unions in the late 1980s. McDonalds has tried to roll-back the basic terms of such agreements ever since. Nevertheless, in Sweden, Norway and Denmark, McDonalds workers do enjoy better conditions of work and higher pay than in other European countries and the USA itself. However, even in those countries it is very difficult to establish union representatives in the outlets, something which experience shows is essential if such collective agreements are to be properly enforced in. Despite these difficulties European unions have undoubtedly had some success in bringing McDonalds to the bargaining table, especially where sector-level bargaining is in effect compulsory and where labour law is more stringent and supportive of union rights and collective bargaining. Q.d. What additional or alternative methods could support good employee relations for McDonalds? Consider the role an HR function could take? The HRM approach to employee relations can be described in terms of several prescriptions that McDonalds can use for good employee relationship. An HRM model for employee relations focuses on a drive for commitment meaning that the focus of the organization should be to win the trust, motivation and commitment to the organization, participating in its development opportunities. Emphasis is on mutuality, meaning that employees share common goals, the vision and mission of the organization. Communication within the organization follows an established set of procedures that are agreed formally or informally and may include briefings, meetings with representatives, etc. HRM emphasizes the shift from collective bargaining to individual contracts. Employee involvement in McDonalds may be fostered and a number of techniques and approaches are followed to support their involvement. Total quality management aims at continuous improvement of quality. Another initiative for McDonalds is flexible working arrangements and focus on the life-work balance through harmonization of conditions for all employees. Finally the support of employee communities of practice and team spirit are of high priority. Employee relations describe as in-terms employee communication, employee involvement, employee rights and employee discipline. Armstrong has identified the elements of employee relations as follows may have been considered in designing the employee relationship: Formal and informal policies and practices of the organisation. The development, negotiation and application of formal systems, rules and procedures for collective bargaining, handling disputes and regulating employment. Policies and practices for employee communications . Informal and formal process regulating the interactions between managers and employees. Policies of the government, management and trade unions. A number of parties including state, management, organisations, trade unions, employees, etc. The legal framework. Institutions (e.g. ACAS) and the employment tribunals. The bargaining structures, recognition and procedural agreements enabling the formal system to operate. Employee relations processes Figure Reconciliation of interests between employers and employees According to the Industrial Relations Services there are four approaches to employee relations that can contribute in better relationship between McDonalds and its employees are: Adversarial meaning that employees are expected to follow the targets identified by the Organization. Traditional meaning that employees react on management proposals and directives. Partnership meaning that employees are involved in assisting the organisation and consensus is reached in decision making related to policies. Power sharing employees are involved also in daily management apart from policy making. Employee relations policies act to disseminate its preferred approach with respect to the relationship it wants to have with its employees and the empowerment of employees for certain activities. Employee relation policies cover several areas McDonalds may have used in improving employee relations including: Trade union recognition meaning decisions with respect to the recognition or derecognition of certain unions and preferences of the unions the organisation prefers to deal with. Collective bargaining meaning the identification of those areas that should be covered from such a negotiation. Employee relations procedures meaning procedures such as redundancy, grievance handling and disciplinary actions. Participation and involvement meaning the extent to which the organization shares power and control with its employees. Partnership meaning the extent to which a partnership with employees is desirable. The employment relationship meaning the extent to which employment terms and conditions are controlled by collective agreements or individual contracts. Harmonization meaning the harmonization of terms and conditions of employment arrangements. Working arrangements meaning the extent to which unions are involved in the determination of working arrangements. Employee involvement is central to employee relations as Bratton and Gold discuss. Employee involvement can be described in terms of the form of involvement (whether it is formal or informal), the level of involvement in the organizational hierarchy and the degree of involvement. Across these three employee involvement dimensions several types of involvement can be rated from the lower ones in terms of empowerment, involvement and organizational level to the higher ones. Through wide range of employee involvement McDonalds can start good employee relations process which never been in this organization. The following situations are ranked in an ascending order in terms of all three dimensions of employee involvement McDonalds should take into consideration: Communication -> Financial Involvement -> Problem solving groups -> Quality circles -> Cross functional teams -> Self directed teams -> Collective bargaining -> Worker directors -> Works councils. Employee involvement in McDonalds can be described as an involvement-commitment cycle, a communication cycle that builds an internal culture encouraging initiative, learning and creativity. The cycle consists of the following stages: Managers perceive the need for involving employees in decision making Introduce new forms, employee involvement and open communication mechanisms Greater autonomy and input into decision making Increased employee job satisfaction, motivation and commitment Improved individual and organisational performance. Q.e. Conclude by taking the key elements of your observations in steps a-d regarding McDonalds approach to employee relations in order to make a short recommendation for similar countries or organisations with regard to developing and/or improving their employee relations Findings recommendations: The process of collective bargaining is to settles down any conflicts regarding the conditions of employment such as wages, working hours and conditions, overtime payments, holidays, vacations, benefits, insurance benefits etc. and management regulations. In most areas, McDonalds German employees appear to enjoy better conditions than their UK counterpart. This is particularly so with regard to holiday entitlement but again this is still lower than for most German firms. The recent UK pay increase has brought pay levels close to those in Germany. In Germany the NGG are satisfied that by and large they have been able to improve pay and conditions for most employees, however, there remain two main problems. The above discussion suggests that there is an obvious need to scrutinise the powers of MNEs and it raises questions about the adequacy of labour legislation. Conditions of work and employment appear to be increasingly threatened, regardless of particular institutional arrangements. Weak or ambiguous legislation and continuing employer demands for flexibility, decentralisation and deregulation may increasingly allow MNEs to choose employee relations policies with interference from external labour market institutions. This may be too pessimistic, clearly more comparative work is needed in the area and it will need to concentrate on the common themes or tensions in all countries and examine how they are affecting the choices of micro-level actors and institutional arrangements in different societies. Individual bargaining can be used as both of alternative to collective or in parallel. But my recommendation for Macdonalds to use individual bargaining as an alternative approach specially in Europe and American territory whereas in Australia and New Zealand it could be used in addition. Due to decline in collective bargaining in all over the world it is now strongly recommended that McDonalds should prepare to adapt with a change in the bargaining structure which is becoming more decentralised in Sweden, Australia, the former West Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States, although in somewhat different degrees and ways from country to country. We have also come to understand that bargaining structure both influences and is influenced by the distribution of bargaining power. Yet, data that allow clear tests of the effects of changes in bargaining structure on bargaining outcomes generally have not been available. The difficulty of assessing the effects of bargaining structure arises in part from the fact that there is no simple measure of the degree of bargaining structure centralisation, because the location of collective bargaining often differs depending on the subject of bargaining. In many countries, wages are negotiated in company or sectoral agreements, and work rules are set at a lower level, often in plant agreements. Furthermore, worker participation in decision making often occurs at still another bargaining level, or through informal mechanisms (works councils or shop floor discussions, for example) rather than through collective bargaining agreements. McDonalds is now a biggest brand in the food industry world-wide. So it has its own responsibility to look into public image and good employee relations which are widely correlated. So McDonalds should keep very efficient employee relation practice through an efficient Human Resource Strategy and functioning properly on HR roles. 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